Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and the Art of Sculpture

Italian architect and author (1404-1472)

Leon Battista Alberti
Presumed self-portrait of Leon Battista Alberti
Born	14 Feb 1406 Genoa, Republic of Genoa
Died	25 April 1472(1472-04-25) (aged 66) Rome, Papal States
Nationality	Italian
Known for	Architecture, linguistics, verse
Notable work	Tempio Malatestiano, Palazzo Rucellai, Santa Maria Novella
Movement	Italian Renaissance

Leon Battista Alberti (Italian: [leˈom batˈtista alˈbɛrti]; 14 February 1406 – 25 Apr 1472) was an Italian Renaissance humanist author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher, and cryptographer; he epitomised the nature of those identified now as polymaths. He is considered the founder of Western cryptography, a claim he shares with Johannes Trithemius.^[1] ^[2]

Although he often is characterized exclusively as an builder, as James Beck has observed,^[3] "to single out 1 of Leon Battista's 'fields' over others every bit somehow functionally independent and self-sufficient is of no help at all to any effort to characterize Alberti'southward extensive explorations in the fine arts". Although Alberti is known mostly for beingness an artist, he was likewise a mathematician of many sorts and fabricated great advances to this field during the fifteenth century.^[4] The two most of import buildings he designed are the churches of San Sebastiano (1460) and Sant'Andrea (1472), both in Mantua.^[5]

Alberti's life was described in Giorgio Vasari'south Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects.

Biography [edit]

Early life [edit]

A portrait of Alberti by Filippino Lippi is thought to exist in the Brancacci Chapel, as role of Lippi's completion of the Masaccio painting, the Raising of the Son of Theophilus and St. Peter Enthroned

Leon Battista Alberti was born in 1406 in Genoa. His mother was Bianca Fieschi. His father, Benedetto Alberti, was a wealthy Florentine who had been exiled from his own city, but allowed to return in 1428. Alberti was sent to boarding school in Padua, and so studied law at Bologna.^[6] ^[7] He lived for a time in Florence, then in 1431 travelled to Rome, where he took holy orders and entered the service of the papal court.^[8] During this time he studied the ancient ruins, which excited his interest in architecture and strongly influenced the grade of the buildings that he designed.^[viii]

Alberti was gifted in many ways. He was tall, strong, and a fine athlete who could ride the wildest horse and jump over a person'southward head.^[nine] He distinguished himself equally a writer while even so a kid at school, and past the age of 20 had written a play that was successfully passed off as a genuine piece of Classical literature.^[7] In 1435 he began his first major written work, Della pittura, which was inspired by the burgeoning pictorial art in Florence in the early fifteenth century. In this work he analysed the nature of painting and explored the elements of perspective, limerick, and colour.^[eight]

In 1438 he began to focus more on architecture and was encouraged by the Marchese Leonello d'Este of Ferrara, for whom he built a small triumphal arch to back up an equestrian statue of Leonello's father.^[7] In 1447 Alberti became architectural advisor to Pope Nicholas 5 and was involved in several projects at the Vatican.^[vii]

First major commission [edit]

His first major architectural commission was in 1446 for the facade of the Rucellai Palace in Florence. This was followed in 1450 past a commission from Sigismondo Malatesta to transform the Gothic church of San Francesco in Rimini into a memorial chapel, the Tempio Malatestiano.^[8] In Florence, he designed the upper parts of the facade for the Dominican church building of Santa Maria Novella, famously bridging the nave and lower aisles with ii ornately inlaid scrolls, solving a visual problem and setting a precedent to be followed by architects of churches for four hundred years.^[10] In 1452, he completed De re aedificatoria, a treatise on architecture, using equally its basis the work of Vitruvius and influenced by the archaeological remains of Rome. The work was not published until 1485. It was followed in 1464 by his less influential work, De statua, in which he examines sculpture.^[8] Alberti'due south only known sculpture is a self-portrait medallion, sometimes attributed to Pisanello.

Alberti was employed to design two churches in Mantua, San Sebastiano, which was never completed and for which Alberti's intention can merely be speculated upon, and the Basilica of Sant'Andrea. The pattern for the latter church was completed in 1471, a yr before Alberti's death, merely was brought to completion and is his virtually significant work.^[10]

Alberti as artist [edit]

As an artist, Alberti distinguished himself from the ordinary craftsman educated in workshops. He was a humanist who followed Aristotle and Plotinus, and part of the rapidly expanding entourage of intellectuals and artisans supported by the courts of the princes and lords of the fourth dimension. As a fellow member of noble family and as function of the Roman curia, Alberti had special condition. He was a welcomed invitee at the Este court in Ferrara, and in Urbino he spent role of the hot-atmospheric condition flavor with the soldier-prince Federico Three da Montefeltro. The Duke of Urbino was a shrewd military commander, who generously spent money on the patronage of art. Alberti planned to dedicate his treatise on architecture to his friend.^[nine]

Amidst Alberti's smaller studies, pioneering in their field, were a treatise in cryptography, De componendis cifris, and the kickoff Italian grammar. With the Florentine cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli he collaborated in astronomy, a close science to geography at that time, and he produced a small Latin piece of work on geography, Descriptio urbis Romae (The Panorama of the Metropolis of Rome). Just a few years earlier his death, Alberti completed De iciarchia (On Ruling the Household), a dialogue well-nigh Florence during the Medici rule.

Having taken holy orders, Alberti never married. He loved animals and had a pet domestic dog, a mongrel, for whom he wrote a panegyric, (Canis).^[nine] Vasari describes Alberti as "an admirable citizen, a human being of culture... a friend of talented men, open and courteous with everyone. He always lived honourably and similar the gentleman he was."^[11] Alberti died in Rome on 25 April 1472 at the historic period of 66.

Publications [edit]

Alberti regarded mathematics as a starting point for the discussion of art and the sciences. "To make clear my exposition in writing this brief commentary on painting," Alberti began his treatise, Della Pittura (On Painting) that he defended to Brunelleschi, "I will take first from the mathematicians those things with which my subject is concerned."^[12]

Della pittura (also known in Latin equally De Pictura) relied on its scientific content on classical optics in determining perspective as a geometric musical instrument of creative and architectural representation. Alberti was well-versed in the sciences of his historic period. His knowledge of optics was connected to the handed-downwards long-standing tradition of the Kitab al-manazir (The Optics; De aspectibus) of the Arab polymath Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham, d. c. 1041), which was mediated by Franciscan optical workshops of the thirteenth-century Perspectivae traditions of scholars such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, and Witelo (like influences are as well traceable in the third commentary of Lorenzo Ghiberti, Commentario terzo).^[xiii]

English title page of the kickoff edition of Giacomo Leoni's translation of Alberti's De Re Aedificatoria (1452) - the book is bilingual, with the Italian version being printed on the left and the English version printed on the right

In both Della pittura and De statua, Alberti stressed that "all steps of learning should be sought from nature".^[xiv] The ultimate aim of an artist is to imitate nature. Painters and sculptors strive "through by unlike skills, at the same goal, namely that as nearly as possible the work they have undertaken shall announced to the observer to be similar to the existent objects of nature".^[fourteen] Nevertheless, Alberti did not mean that artists should imitate nature considerately, as information technology is, but the artist should be especially attentive to dazzler, "for in painting beauty is as pleasing as it is necessary".^[14] The work of art is, according to Alberti, and so constructed that it is impossible to take anything away from it or to add annihilation to it, without impairing the beauty of the whole. Dazzler was for Alberti "the harmony of all parts in relation to i another," and afterwards "this agree is realized in a detail number, proportion, and arrangement demanded by harmony". Alberti's thoughts on harmony were not new—they could be traced back to Pythagoras—but he prepare them in a fresh context, which fit in well with the contemporary aesthetic discourse.

In Rome, Alberti had enough of fourth dimension to study its ancient sites, ruins, and objects. His detailed observations, included in his De re aedificatoria (1452, On the Art of Building),^[xv] were patterned afterward the De architectura by the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius (fl. 46–30 BC). The piece of work was the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance. Information technology covered a wide range of subjects, from history to boondocks planning, and engineering to the philosophy of dazzler. De re aedificatoria, a large and expensive book, was not fully published until 1485, after which information technology became a major reference for architects.^[xvi] All the same, the book was written "non only for craftsmen but also for anyone interested in the noble arts", every bit Alberti put it.^[15] Originally published in Latin, the first Italian edition came out in 1546. and the standard Italian edition by Cosimo Bartoli was published in 1550. Pope Nicholas V, to whom Alberti dedicated the whole work, dreamed of rebuilding the urban center of Rome, merely he managed to realize only a fragment of his visionary plans. Through his book, Alberti opened upwards his theories and ideals of the Florentine Renaissance to architects, scholars, and others.

Alberti wrote I Libri della famiglia—which discussed education, wedlock, household management, and money—in the Tuscan dialect. The piece of work was non printed until 1843. Like Erasmus decades later, Alberti stressed the need for a reform in didactics. He noted that "the care of very young children is women's piece of work, for nurses or the mother", and that at the earliest possible historic period children should exist taught the alphabet.^[14] With great hopes, he gave the work to his family to read, but in his autobiography Alberti confesses that "he could inappreciably avoid feeling rage, moreover, when he saw some of his relatives openly ridiculing both the whole piece of work and the author's futile enterprise along it".^[14] Momus, written between 1443 and 1450, was a notable comedy about the Olympian deities. Information technology has been considered as a roman à clef—Jupiter has been identified in some sources as Pope Eugenius IV and Pope Nicholas V. Alberti borrowed many of its characters from Lucian, one of his favorite Greek writers. The proper noun of its hero, Momus, refers to the Greek give-and-take for blame or criticism. Subsequently being expelled from sky, Momus, the god of mockery, is eventually castrated. Jupiter and the other deities come down to globe also, only they return to sky later Jupiter breaks his olfactory organ in a smashing storm.

Architectural works [edit]

The dramatic facade of Sant' Andrea, Mantua, (1471) built to Alberti'due south blueprint subsequently his death

The unfinished and altered facade of San Sebastiano has promoted much speculation every bit to Alberti'south intentions.

Alberti did not business organisation himself with the practicalities of building, and very few of his major works were brought to completion. As a designer and a student of Vitruvius and of ancient Roman remains, he grasped the nature of column and lintel architecture, from the visual rather than structural viewpoint, and correctly employed the Classical orders, different his contemporary, Brunelleschi, who used the Classical column and pilaster in a complimentary interpretation. Among Alberti's concerns was the social upshot of architecture, and to this end he was very well aware of the cityscape.^[ten] This is demonstrated by his inclusion, at the Rucellai Palace, of a continuous demote for seating at the level of the basement. Alberti anticipated the principle of street hierarchy, with wide principal streets connected to secondary streets, and buildings of equal height.^[17]

In Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V for the restoration of the Roman channel of Acqua Vergine, which debouched into a unproblematic basin designed past Alberti, which was swept abroad later by the Baroque Trevi Fountain.

In some studies,^[18] the authors propose that the Villa Medici in Fiesole might owe its design to Alberti, non to Michelozzo, and that it and so became the image of the Renaissance villa. This hilltop home, deputed by Giovanni de' Medici, Cosimo il Vecchio's second son, with its view over the city, may be the very first example of a Renaissance villa: that is to say it follows the Albertian criteria for rendering a country dwelling a "villa suburbana". Nether this perspective the Villa Medici in Fiesole could therefore be considered the "muse" for numerous other buildings, not only in the Florence expanse, which from the end of the fifteenth century onward find inspiration and creative innovation from it.

Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini [edit]

The Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini (1447, 1453–60)^[19] is the rebuilding of a Gothic church. The facade, with its dynamic play of forms, was left incomplete.^[x]

Façade of Palazzo Rucellai [edit]

The design of the façade of the Palazzo Rucellai (1446–51) was one of several commissions for the Rucellai family.^[19] The design overlays a grid of shallow pilasters and cornices in the Classical manner onto rusticated masonry, and is surmounted by a heavy cornice. The inner courtyard has Corinthian columns. The palace set a standard in the use of Classical elements that is original in civic buildings in Florence, and greatly influenced later palazzi. The work was executed by Bernardo Rosselino.^[10]

Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini

Santa Maria Novella [edit]

At Santa Maria Novella, Florence, betwixt (1448–lxx)^[19] the upper facade was synthetic to the design of Alberti. Information technology was a challenging job, as the lower level already had three doorways and six Gothic niches containing tombs and employing the polychrome marble typical of Florentine churches, such as San Miniato al Monte and the Baptistery of Florence. The design as well incorporates an ocular window that was already in place. Alberti introduced Classical features around the portico and spread the polychromy over the entire facade in a fashion that includes Classical proportions and elements such equally pilasters, cornices, and a pediment in the Classical style, ornamented with a sunburst in tesserae, rather than sculpture. The best known feature of this typically aisled church is the style in which Alberti has solved the problem of visually bridging the different levels of the central nave and much lower side aisles. He employed 2 big scrolls, which were to become a standard feature of church facades in the afterward Renaissance, Bizarre, and Classical Revival buildings.^[x]

Pienza [edit]

Piazza Pio 2 in Pienza, looking toward the Palazzo Piccolomini

Alberti is considered to take been the consultant for the blueprint of the Piazza Pio II, Pienza. The village, previously called Corsignano, was redesigned kickoff around 1459.^[19] It was the birthplace of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II, in whose utilize Alberti served. Pius Ii wanted to use the village as a retreat, but needed for information technology to reflect the dignity of his position.

The piazza is a trapezoid shape defined by iv buildings, with a focus on Pienza Cathedral and passages on either side opening onto a mural view. The principal residence, Palazzo Piccolomini, is on the western side. It has three stories, articulated by pilasters and entablature courses, with a twin-lighted cantankerous window set within each bay. This structure is similar to Alberti's Palazzo Rucellai in Florence and other later palaces. Noteworthy is the internal court of the palazzo. The back of the palace, to the south, is defined by loggia on all three floors that overlook an enclosed Italian Renaissance garden with Giardino all'italiana era modifications, and spectacular views into the distant landscape of the Val d'Orcia and Pope Pius'southward dearest Mountain Amiata beyond. Below this garden is a vaulted stable that had stalls for a hundred horses. The design, which radically transformed the center of the town, included a palace for the pope, a church, a boondocks hall, and a edifice for the bishops who would accompany the Pope on his trips. Pienza is considered an early on example of Renaissance urban planning.

Sant' Andrea, Mantua [edit]

The Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua was begun in 1471,^[xix] the twelvemonth before Alberti'due south death. It was brought to completion and is his most significant work employing the triumphal curvation motif, both for its facade and interior, and influencing many works that were to follow.^[10] Alberti perceived the role of builder every bit designer. Unlike Brunelleschi, he had no involvement in the construction, leaving the practicalities to builders and the oversight to others.^[x]

Other buildings [edit]

San Sebastiano, Mantua, (begun 1458)^[19] the unfinished facade of which has promoted much speculation every bit to Alberti's intention ^[x]
Sepolcro Rucellai in San Pancrazio, 1467)^[xix]
The Tribune for Santissima Annunziata, Florence (1470, completed with alterations, 1477)^[19]

Painting [edit]

Giorgio Vasari, who argued that historical progress in art reached its peak in Michelangelo, emphasized Alberti'due south scholarly achievements, not his artistic talents: "He spent his time finding out about the world and studying the proportions of antiquities; just higher up all, following his natural genius, he concentrated on writing rather than on applied work."^[11] Leonardo, who ironically chosen himself "an uneducated person" (omo senza lettere), followed Alberti in the view that painting is science. However, as a scientist, Leonardo was more empirical than Alberti, who was a theorist and did non take similar interest in do. Alberti believed in platonic beauty, but Leonardo filled his notebooks with observations on human being proportions, folio after page, ending with his famous cartoon of the Vitruvian man, a human being figure related to a square and a circle.

In On Painting, Alberti uses the expression "Nosotros Painters", but as a painter, or sculptor, he was a dilettante. "In painting Alberti achieved nothing of any great importance or beauty", wrote Vasari.^[11] "The very few paintings of his that are extant are far from perfect, but this is non surprising since he devoted himself more to his studies than to draughtsmanship." Jacob Burckhardt portrayed Alberti in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy as a truly universal genius. "And Leonardo Da Vinci was to Alberti as the finisher to the beginner, as the primary to the dilettante. Would only that Vasari'southward work were hither supplemented by a description like that of Alberti! The jumbo outlines of Leonardo'south nature can never be more than dimly and distantly conceived."^[ix]

Alberti is said to appear in Mantegna's peachy frescoes in the Camera degli Sposi, equally the older human being dressed in dark red clothes, who whispers in the ear of Ludovico Gonzaga, the ruler of Mantua.^[xx] In Alberti'southward self-portrait, a large plaquette, he is clothed equally a Roman. To the left of his profile is a winged eye. On the contrary side is the question, Quid tummy? (what then), taken from Virgil's Eclogues: "So what, if Amyntas is dark? (quid breadbasket si fuscus Amyntas?) Violets are blackness, and hyacinths are black."^[21]

Contributions [edit]

Alberti made a diverseness of contributions to several fields:

Alberti was the creator of a theory called "historia". In his treatise De pictura (1435) he explains the theory of the accumulation of people, animals, and buildings, which create harmony among each other, and "hold the middle of the learned and unlearned spectator for a long while with a certain sense of pleasure and emotion". De pictura ("On Painting") contained the kickoff scientific study of perspective. An Italian translation of De pictura (Della pittura) was published in 1436, one year subsequently the original Latin version and addressed Filippo Brunelleschi in the preface. The Latin version had been defended to Alberti's humanist patron, Gianfrancesco Gonzaga of Mantua. He also wrote works on sculpture, De statua.
Alberti used his creative treatises to propound a new humanistic theory of art. He drew on his contacts with early Quattrocento artists such every bit Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Ghiberti to provide a practical handbook for the renaissance creative person.
Alberti wrote an influential work on architecture, De re aedificatoria, which by the sixteenth century had been translated into Italian (by Cosimo Bartoli), French, Castilian, and English. An English language translation was past Giacomo Leoni in the early eighteenth century. Newer translations are now available.
Whilst Alberti's treatises on painting and architecture have been hailed as the founding texts of a new form of art, breaking from the Gothic past, it is impossible to know the extent of their practical touch on within his lifetime. His praise of the Calumny of Apelles led to several attempts to emulate information technology, including paintings by Botticelli and Signorelli. His stylistic ideals have been put into practice in the works of Mantegna, Piero della Francesca, and Fra Angelico. Only how far Alberti was responsible for these innovations and how far he was but articulating the trends of the artistic movement, with which his applied experience had made him familiar, is impossible to ascertain.
He was so skilled in Latin verse that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled Philodoxius, would afterwards deceive the younger Aldus Manutius, who edited and published it as the genuine work of 'Lepidus Comicus'.

I of the giant scrolls at Santa Maria Novella

He has been credited with being the author, or alternatively, the designer of the woodcut illustrations, of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, a foreign fantasy novel.^[22]
Apart from his treatises on the arts, Alberti also wrote: Philodoxus ("Lover of Glory", 1424), De commodis litterarum atque incommodis ("On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Literary Studies", 1429), Intercoenales ("Tabular array Talk", c. 1429), Della famiglia ("On the Family", begun 1432), Vita S. Potiti ("Life of St. Potitus", 1433), De iure (On Police force, 1437), Theogenius ("The Origin of the Gods", c. 1440), Profugorium ab aerumna ("Refuge from Mental Anguish",), Momus (1450), and De Iciarchia ("On the Prince", 1468). These and other works were translated and printed in Venice by the humanist Cosimo Bartoli in 1586.
Alberti was an achieved cryptographer by the standard of his twenty-four hour period and invented the first polyalphabetic cipher, which is now known as the Alberti cipher, and machine-assisted encryption using his Zippo Disk. The polyalphabetic cipher was, at least in principle (for it was non properly used for several hundred years) the most significant advance in cryptography since earlier Julius Caesar's time. Cryptography historian David Kahn entitles him the "Father of Western Cryptography", pointing to three significant advances in the field that can be attributed to Alberti: "the earliest Western exposition of cryptanalysis, the invention of polyalphabetic substitution, and the invention of enciphered code".David Kahn (1967). The codebreakers: the story of secret writing . New York: MacMillan.
Co-ordinate to Alberti, in a short autobiography written c. 1438 in Latin and in the third person, (many simply not all scholars consider this piece of work to be an autobiography) he was capable of "standing with his feet together, and springing over a homo's head." The autobiography survives thanks to an eighteenth-century transcription by Antonio Muratori. Alberti too claimed that he "excelled in all bodily exercises; could, with feet tied, leap over a standing man; could in the great cathedral, throw a coin far up to ring against the vault; amused himself by taming wild horses and climbing mountains". Needless to say, many in the Renaissance promoted themselves in various ways and Alberti's eagerness to promote his skills should be understood, to some extent, within that framework. (This advice should be followed in reading the higher up information, some of which originates in this so-chosen autobiography.)
Alberti claimed in his "autobiography" to be an achieved musician and organist, only there is no hard testify to back up this claim. In fact, musical posers were non uncommon in his twenty-four hours (run across the lyrics to the song Musica Son, by Francesco Landini, for complaints to this consequence.) He held the appointment of canon in the metropolitan church of Florence, and thus – mayhap – had the leisure to devote himself to this art, but this is only speculation. Vasari also agreed with this.^[11]
He was interested in the drawing of maps and worked with the astronomer, astrologer, and cartographer Paolo Toscanelli.
In terms of Aesthetics Alberti is one of the starting time defining the work of art as false of nature, exactly equally a selection of its well-nigh beautiful parts: "So let's accept from nature what we are going to paint, and from nature we choose the most beautiful and worthy things".^[23]

Works in print [edit]

A window of the Rucellai Palace

De Pictura, 1435. On Painting, in English, De Pictura, in Latin, On Painting. Penguin Classics. 1972. ISBN978-0-xiv-043331-nine. ; Della Pittura, in Italian (1804 [1434]).
Momus, Latin text and English language translation, 2003 ISBN 0-674-00754-9
De re aedificatoria (1452, 10 Books on Compages). Alberti, Leon Battista. De re aedificatoria. On the art of building in ten books. (translated by Joseph Rykwert, Robert Tavernor and Neil Leach). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Printing, 1988. ISBN 0-262-51060-X. ISBN 978-0-262-51060-viii. Latin, French and Italian editions and in English translation.
De Cifris A Treatise on Ciphers (1467), trans. A. Zaccagnini. Foreword by David Kahn, Galimberti, Torino 1997.
Della tranquillitá dell'animo. 1441.
"Leon Battista Alberti. On Painting. A New Translation an Disquisitional Edition", Edited and Translated by Rocco Sinisgalli, Cambridge University Press, New York, May 2011, ISBN 978-1-107-00062-9, (books.google.de)
I libri della famiglia, Italian edition^[24]
"Dinner pieces". A Translation of the Intercenales by David Marsh. Eye for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, Country University of New York, Binghamton 1987.
"Descriptio urbis Romae. Leon Battista Alberti's Delineation of the city of Rome". Peter Hicks, Arizona Board of Regents for Arizona State university 2007.

Legacy [edit]

Borsi states that Alberti'due south writings on architecture go along to influence modern and contemporary architecture stating: "The organicism and nature-worship of Wright, the neat classicism of van der Mies, the regulatory outlines and anthropomorphic, harmonic, modular systems of Le Corbusier, and Kahn's revival of the 'antiquarian' are all elements that tempt ane to trace Alberti'southward influence on modern compages."^[25]

In popular culture [edit]

Leon Battista Alberti is a major character in Roberto Rossellini's three-part television motion-picture show The Age of the Medici (1973), with the third and terminal part, Leon Battista Alberti: Humanism, centering on him, his works (such every bit Santa Maria Novella), and his thought. He is played by Italian actor Virginio Gazzolo.^[26]
Mentioned in the 1994 film Renaissance Man or Regular army Intelligence starring Danny DeVito.
Mentioned in the 2004 book The Rule of Iv by Ian Caldwell and Dustin Thomason

Notes [edit]

^ Leeuw, Karl Maria Michael de; Bergstra, Jan (28 August 2007). The History of Information Security: A Comprehensive Handbook. Elsevier. p. 283. ISBN978-0-08-055058-9 . Retrieved xx Feb 2022.
^ Holden, Joshua (two Oct 2018). The Mathematics of Secrets: Cryptography from Caesar Ciphers to Digital Encryption. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-18331-2 . Retrieved 20 Feb 2022.
^ James Beck, "Leon Battista Alberti and the 'Nighttime Heaven' at San Lorenzo", Artibus et Historiae 10, No. 19 (1989:ix–35), p. nine.
^ Williams, Kim (Baronial 27, 2010). The Mathematical Works of Leon Battista Alberti. Birkhauser Verlag AG. p. i. ISBN978-3-0346-0473-4 – via Knuckles Libraries.
^ Norwich, John Julius (1990). Oxford Illustrated Encyclopedia Of The Arts. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN978-0198691372.
^ Treccani encyclopedia, Leon Battista Alberti
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Melissa Snell, Leon Battsta Alberti, Almost.com: Medieval History.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^{due east} The Renaissance:a Illustrated Encyclopedia, Octopus (1979) ISBN 0706408578
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Jacob Burckhardt in The Civilization of the Renaissance Italy, two.1, 1860.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^eastward ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Joseph Rykwert, ed., Leon Baptiste Alberti, Architectul Design, Vol 49 No v-6, London
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Vasari, The Lives of the Artists
^ Leone Battista Alberti, On Painting, editor John Richard Spencer, 1956, p. 43.
^ Nader El-Bizri, "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, vol. 15, issue 2 (2005), pp. 189–218 (Cambridge University Press).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Liukkonen, Petri. "Leon Battista Alberti". Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on February ten, 2015.
^ ^a ^b Alberti, Leon Battista. On the Art of Edifice in Ten Books. Trans. Leach, N., Rykwert, J., & Tavenor, R. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1988
^ Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc., Palladio'due south Literary Predecessors
^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Urban center. Routledge. p. 12.
^ D. Mazzini, South. Simone, Villa Medici a Fiesole. Leon Battista Alberti e il prototipo di villa rinascimentale, Centro Di, Firenze 2004
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Franco Borsi. Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row, (1977)
^ Johnson, Eugene J. (1975). "A Portrait of Leon Battista Alberti in the Camera degli Sposi?". Arte Lombarda, Nuova Serie. 42/43 (42/43): 67–69. JSTOR 43104980.
^ Virgil, Bucolica, Chapter X.
^ Liane Lefaivre, Leon Battista Alberti's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997
^ De Pictura, book III: Ergo semper quae picturi sumus, ea a natura sumamus, semperque ex his quaeque pulcherrima et dignissima deligamus.
^ Alberti, Leon Battista (1908). "I libri della famiglia".
^ Brosi, p. 254
^ The Benchmark Collection, The Age of the Medici (1973) | The Criterion Drove

References [edit]

[1] Magda Saura, "Edifice codes in the architectural treatise De re aedificatoria,"

[2] Third International Congress on Structure History, Cottbus, May 2009.

[3] http://hdl.handle.internet/2117/14252

External links [edit]

Albertian Bibliography on line
MS Typ 422.2. Alberti, Leon Battista, 1404–1472. Ex ludis rerum mathematicarum : manuscript, [14--]. Houghton Library, Harvard University.
Palladio'due south Literary Predecessors
"Learning from the Metropolis-States? Leon Battista Alberti and the London Riots", Caspar Pearson, Berfrois, September 26, 2011
Online resource for Alberti's buildings
- Alberti Photogrammetric Drawings [4]
- Due south. Andrea, Mantua, Italy
- Sta. Maria Novella, Florence, Italy
Alberti's works online
- De pictura/Della pittura, original Latin and Italian texts (English language translation)
- Libri della famiglia – Libro 3 – Dignità del volgare on audio MP3
- Momus, (printed in Rome in 1520), total digital facsimile, CAMENA Project
- The Compages of Leon Battista Alberti in X Books, (printed in London in 1755), full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library
- Works of Alberti, book facsimiles via annal.org

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti